027 249 331 5 § 



Holline^er Com. 



^NOTES ON; 



PUBLIC SPEAKING 




Notes on Public Speaking 



Compiled for the use of the students of 

The Pennsylvania State College 

by 

JOHN H. FRIZZELL 

Instructor in English and Oratory 



1905 

THE NITTANY PRITTING AND PUBLISHING CO. 

STATE COLLEGE, PA. 



A 






J (X. 

) XL L 3 I 



Copyright, 1905, by 
JOHN H. FRIZZELL 









PREFACE 

There seems to be in existence, a pretty well defined idea 
that every book must have a preface. Now this little pamphlet 
does not presume to be a book in any sense of the word. It is 
merely a collection of notes all too hastily compiled. Still it 
must have a preface like the rest, and that preface will explain its 
reason for existence. 

The pamphlet was written neither to win fame nor for amuse- 
ment. It was written because there seemed to be a need of it in 
the work of the course, because most of what is contained herein 
has had to be given out orally to the students, an unsatisfactory, 
laborious and time-consuming process, and finally, because it was 
hoped that by putting down in black and white what the course is 
and aims to be and do, the student might get a better grasp on 
the subject, and the work thus be made more definite. It is in- 
tended to be used as a manual along with that excellent text-book, 
Laycock and Scales' " Argumentation and Debate, " and it is hoped 
that it contains all information necessary to a clear understanding 
of the work and the requirements of the course in Public Speak- 
ing 

That errors are numerous, is entirely probable, for the writ- 
ing of the pamphlet has of necessity been done during the odd 
moments of a very busy summer. It is earnestly hoped that these 
will be brought to the writer's attention. The latter wishes here 
to acknowledge his indebtedness to various text-books on the 
subject of public speaking, notably Southwick's "Steps to Oratory," 
and Laycock and Scales' book already referred to. 

J. H. F. 

Magnolia, Mass., August 30, 1905. 



The Pennsylvania State College 
School of Language and Literature 



Department of English and Rhetoric 



PUBLIC SPEAKING 

FRESHMAN YEAR. 

ENGLISH III. FORENSICS. 

Declamations with criticism in rehearsal. Two decla- 
mations each semester during the year, each declama- 
tion twice spoken. 
Book used: Espenshade's " Forensic Declamations. " 

ENGLISH IV. ARGUMENTATION. 

Recitations and briefs with frequent drill in debate, both 
formal and extempore. Two hours each week during 
the second semester. 

Book used: Lay cock and Scales' " Argumentation and 
Debate. " 
SOPHOMORE AND JUNIOR YEARS. 

ENGLISH VI. FORENSICS, 

Formal debates on assigned topics, the writing of briefs 
and expanded arguments, and impromptu speeches on 
assigned topics of current interest. Criticism en sub- 
ject matter and on delivery. Three hours each semester 
throughout the two years. 
OPTIONAL. OPEN TO JUNIORS AND SENIORS. 

AFTER-DINNER SPEAKING. 

Should enough students manifest a desire to take 
up the study of the after-dinner speech, an optional class 
in the subject may be formed, to meet during the 
second semester of the year. The work will consist of 



the reading, careful study and analysis of the best after- 
dinner speeches, together with some actual practice in 
the delivery of after-dinner speeches on familiar 
assigned topics. 
COMMENCEMENT ORATORS. JUNIORS AND SENIORS 
At the opening of the spring session, announcement 
is made of the Junior Orators and Commencement 
Orators, chosen by the Faculty. These orators, under 
direction of the Department, write their orations, which 
are carefully read, criticised and revised. The actual 
rehearsals begin about the last week in May, and con- 
tinue daily, until Commencement. Criticism both of 
subject matter and delivery is given constantly, by the 
Instructor in Oratory. 



Notes on Public Speaking 



INTRODUCTORY 



The Value of Public Speaking. 

The cry of every technical student is, "Give me something 
practical. " The aim of this college is to answer that cry. In 
every department, the practical is given emphasis. The theory 
of the various branches which the student will take up, he learns 
in the class-rooms, but it is the putting of this theory into practice 
in the laboratories and the shops which best fits him for the actual 
work of the world. It is not unnatural, then, that the first ques- 
tion which a student in a technical college usually asks about a 
course in Public Speaking is " What is the use of it?, " for to him 
the inherent value of the course makes little or no appeal, and the 
practical value of such a course is not at once evident. He will 
say, " I am here to learn hew to do things. I am not going to be 
a lawyer or a preacher or an orator. I will have no speeches to 
make, no orations to deliver. A course in Public speaking, — how 
will it be of any service to me?" Leaving out of consideration 
the question of the value of the subject from other than a practical 
standpoint, let us ask. ''What is the practical value of such a 
course ? Does such a value exist? " 

Decidedly, yes. In the first place it is itself a practicum, — 
a practicum in speaking. Can a man get through this world 
without talking? Obviously, he cannot. He must meet people 
and he must talk to them. No matter who he is or what he does, 
he must " rub up against " his fellow-men, he must talk to them 
and with them, and the harder he " rubs, " the more he talks with 
them, if he is a normal man, the more polished he will be and the 



3 NOTES ON PUBLIC SPEAKING 

more easily can he meet men on an equal footing. Then, too, he 
may be called on at any time to address a body of men. In no 
country in the world are there found such ready and easy speakers 
as in the United States. Why ? Because in this country every 
man has a right to express himself on any subject of public 
interest and he generally uses his right. But ease in speaking can 
come only from practice, and here we find the first advantage to 
be derived from such a course, — it gives a man practice in speak- 
ing, or perhaps we may say in talking. 

But to make the case more applicable to a technical man, to 
an engineer, let us say, — why does he need such a course? First, 
possibly, to help him in securing a position. Our student has 
finished his college course; he goes to the head of a large com- 
pany and asks for a position. To this man he is an entire stranger, 
he is one among a score of applicants, probably, and he is talking 
to a man whose time is valuable. Our young friend may be a 
most capable man, but he must make his capability known to the 
prospective employer, and he can do that only by talking to him. 
He must tell him briefly, clearly, and pointedly v/hat he has done 
and what he can do. He must make a speech. By this is not 
meant a formal prepared oration such as we usually think of when 
the word " speech " is mentioned, but as he stands before the busy 
employer, he must have clearly in mind something he wants to 
say, and he must say it clearly, briefly, and pointedly. To do this, 
he must make a speech, and it is one of the most important 
speeches of his life. 

Supposing, now, that the position has been secured, that the 
student has become a successful chemist or engineer ; his speech- 
making is not yet over. If he is a civil engineer, he may have a 
plan for a bridge for a railway system. But that plan is not worth 
the paper it is drawn on unless he can get some one to adopt it, to 
use it, and this can only be done by a convincing speech. The 
engineer must go before a board of directors or of consulting 
engineers, and he must tell them clearly, plainly, and, above all, 



INTRODUCTORY 9 

briefly, how his plan is superior to any other possible plan. To do 
this he must be sure of himself, and that he can be only after 
long practice. So it is with the electrical engineer with his plan 
for a new lighting system ; with the mechanical engineer with his 
design for an improved machine. No matter how clever that 
design may be, no matter how practical, it is useless and valueless 
in itself. It derives its value only from adoption by others than 
its inventor, and that inventor will find others conservative, 
skeptical even, and hard to convince. If the engineer has had 
some training in speaking, however slight, he will have an 
advantage over his untrained competitor. His training will be a 
valuable asset. It will be of real and practical value to him. 

The Aim of the Course 

It must not be supposed that this course aims to fit the 
student to secure any position which he may desire, or to enable 
him to have his plans accepted by any board of directors whatever. 
It is by no means so pretentious. Its intention is not to make 
orators or elocutionists out of the men who take it. Orators, like 
poets, " are born and not made, " and the elocutionist would be as 
much out of place before an advisory board of engineers as was 
the familiar " bull in the china shop. " The course aims, simply, 
to help each student, in the limited time that can be given, to 
become a plain, practical business speaker. It aims by practice 
and brief criticism, to familiarize him with the method and 
manner of public speech, and by this same practice, to help him 
to acquire the ability to stand on his feet without awkwardness, to 
think as he stands, and to say plainly and clearly and with power 
what he thinks. 

To this end, whatever suggestions, whether of tone, of inflec- 
tion, or of gesture are given, are made because they seem to help in 
bringing out the thought of the passage more clearly, more plainly 
ex more forcefully. No gestures, for example, are given except 
where it seems that a gesture would naturally be used to make the 



10 NOTES ON PUBLIC SPEAKING 

passage clearer to the reader or to drive it home to his mind with 
more force. The hearer is never for a moment lost sight of. 
An impression must be made on his mind, and that impression 
must be a strong one, so strong, in fact, that if need be, he will act 
on it. That is the purpose in all speaking, and if that purpose is 
accomplished, however quietly, though always, of course, with 
force and clearness, then the speaker is successful and he is much 
more the orator than the so-called orator of the loud voice and 
the wildly waving arms. 

The Etiquette of Public Speaking. 

So much for the practical side of public speaking. There is 
another side, which, if a bit less practical, is none the less important, 
and that is what may be called the etiquette of public speech. To 
a very considerable extent, we are ruled by custom in all we do. 
If we go into the house of a friend, we remove our hats and leave 
them in the hall ; we should never think of wearing them into the 
parlor. And why ? There is no law against so wearing them, but 
there is a pretty well defined sentiment that a man who does, 
lacks good manners. In like manner we remove our hats in the 
presence of a lady. Now common consent or custom has estab- 
lished certain rules of conduct in speaking and the most impor- 
tant of these is that a speaker shall, in one way or another, 
recognize or address both the chairman of the meeting where he 
speaks, and the audience, The manner nf doing this varies with 
the kind of speech to be made. For example, if one is delivering 
a toast at a banquet (an after-dinner speech, more properly) as he 
rises to his feet, his toastmaster having callediupcn him, he says 
with a slight inclination of the head toward each, "Mr. Toast- 
master and Gentlemen." In the case cf a debate, as the speaker 
rises to his feet after being called upon, he says, "Mr. Chair- 
man," or "Mr. President," and then to his audience, "Gentle- 
men," Fellow-classmates," or "Ladies and Gentlemen," as the 
case requires. So in every form of speech, practically, the 



INTRODUCTORY 11 

general rule holds good, that, first, one shall address his chairman, 
and then his audience. 

In declamation, the same general form maintains, though 
the details are somewhat different. Declamations stand for or 
represent formal oratory, and in formal oratory, sermons, orations, 
eulogies and the like, the address is made simply by a bow. No 
word is spoken. In the address to the audience, the salutation is 
simply a bow, straight to the front as described later. Having 
finished the bow, the speaker is ready to begin his declamation. 
This he should do without giving the title of the speech. 

The importance of this address to the house and to the 
chairman, cannot be too much emphasized. It is the mark 
of the gentlemen. It is "the right thing to do." An arbitrary 
ruling it may be, but net more arbitrary than the laws of good 
usage in language or the rules of good manners in daily con- 
duct. One cannot afford to disobey any of these laws. If we 
obey the laws of good use and the rules of good conduct, we 
should, as well, obey the rules of conduct in public speech. If a 
man's failure to take off his hat in the house is noticable, his 
failure to address his chairman or his audience in a public speech 
is equally so, and both will cause observers to exclaim at his poor 
breeding. 

In accordance with the rule that "practice maketh perfect," 
some training in the etiquette of public speaking is necessary, and 
to that end, the observance of the following mode of procedure 
in the work of the course is required. Each speaker is called on 
in turn by the instructor who in this case acts as the chairman cf 
the meeting. As his name is called, the student rises, comes, in 
declamations, to the aisle, in debate, to the position from which 
he is to speak, and turning, addresses the chairman in the man- 
ner noted above. In declamation, he then goes quietly upon the 
stage and bows to his audience in the manner noted later. In de- 
bate, he simply turns and addresses his audience and begins his 
speech. At the conclusion of his speech, both in declamation 



12 NOTES ON PUBLIC SPEAKING 

and in debate, he bows to his audience, and returns quietly to his 
seat. 



Part One 

DECLAMATION 

Freshman Year=Declamation 



The Meaning, the Matter, and the Manner 

of Declamation 

The art of declamation consists in speaking the words of 
others so as to bring out their full meaning. To be successful in 
this art, requires not merely a command of the voice but an under- 
standing of and a sympathy with the thoughts and the emotions of 
the author. The most effective declaimer is he who speaks so 
well as to make his hearers forget that he is declaiming, and 
almost imagine that he is speaking his own words. To this end, 
everything must be subservient, especially the manner cf the 
speech. So long as the audience is forced to notice the gesture, or 
even the language of the speaker, the latter has made a failure of 
his speech. He is successful only when he has interested his hear- 
ers so deeply in the matter of the speech, that they forget the manner 
of it. This is not saying that the manner is unimportant, that 
gesture, enunciation, inflection, emphasis, and so on, can be neg- 
lected. Far from it ! He who has not given careful painstaking 
effort to the manner of his speech, will find not only that these 
faults will distract the attention of his audience, but that the con- 
sciousness of his own awkwardness will be a constant embarass- 
ment to himself. Thus we see that the successful declaimer 
must first think, and try to feel as his own the words he utters, 
and second, he must be so skilled by constant practice in the 
manner of speaking, that the manner will seem to come naturally 



14 NOTES ON PUBLIC SPEAKING 

to him, and will not detract, either by inefficiency or by over- 
efficiency from the matter of his speech. 

The Selection and Preparation of a Declamation. 

Not over one man in ten, in choosing a declamation, will 
select one suited to his powers. The man of the quiet voice, the 
voice lacking in power and tone will select Patrick Henry's, "Call 
to Arms,*' while a student with a big, strong voice not infrequently 
selects such a declamation as Hewitt's, "The Brooklyn Bridge," 
both excellent declamations in their class, but by no means suited 
to everyone for delivery. First of all, let the student select a 
declamation suited to his powers. Then he may go about learn- 
ing it. 

First, the student should read the declamation over care- 
fully several times and try to understand each thought separately. 
He should use his head. Let him notice the punctuation marks 
with care, and study the purpose of each. Every punctuation 
mark stands for a pause, of varying length, according to the 
punctuation used. Commas are for short pauses, semi-colons for 
longer ones, colons for still longer pauses, and periods, exclama- 
tion and interrogation marks for a full stop. A dash signifies an 
abrupt break in the thought. One must take heed of these marks 
as he reads,- they are the guide-posts leading to the interpretation 
of the declamation. Moreover, they are the breathing points in 
the speech, and their observance makes each thought a thing 
apart, and presents it more clearly to the hearer. Try to feel 
exactly as the author felt, when he spoke each phrase. 

When the declamation has been committed to memory and 
you are rehearsing it aloud, try to speak the words as if they were 
the expression of your feelings. Ask yourself what words are 
important, and give those emphasis. Are any words in contrast ? 
Make that contrast evident by giving emphasis to each of the 
contrasted members. Is the thought of any sentence held in 
suspense until the end is reached, or is there a series of words or 



DECLAMATION 15 

phrases depending in thought on some other word.? Keep the 
voice up, in suspense, that is, until the completing word is 
reached. Is there a series of words or phrases rising in value or 
importance from the first to the last ? You have, then, a climax, 
and it is made evident by raising the voice a bit on each succeed- 
ing member of the climax. Anti-climax, the exact opposite 
is brought out by lowering the voice in each case. Are 
there questions in the declamation ? Bring them out as questions, 
letting the voice rise naturally at the end of each. Avoid mono- 
tones, for nothing is more tiresome to the hearer than these. 
Vary the tone or pitch as much as possible without departing too 
much from the level of ordinary conversation. There is in every 
thought a key-word about which the other words cluster. The 
mind and the voice naturally dv/ell on this longest. It should be 
spoken with a stronger accent or with a higher or a lower pitch 
than the other words which make up the thought. This, however, 
does not mean that the emphatic word is to be shouted, but that it 
should be given more stress or more pov/er. The force, that is, 
should be outward and not upward. Finally, to epitomize, try to 
make your delivery of the declamation as clear and as sympa- 
thetic an interpretation of the original as you possibly can. 

The Presentation of the Declamation. A, — Posture. 

The matter of posture, or position, in declamation is of the 
utmost importance, both in its influence on the speaker himself 
and in its influence on the audience. Just as a person can defy 
another more strongly and more sincerely if his hands are free or 
clinched at his sides or in front of him than if they are in his pock- 
ets, so a speaker can more easily impress his hearers with his 
earnestness if he has himself a convincing and earnest posture. 
Moreover, he will find that he will himself feel his sincerity more 
if he stands in a dignified, business-like position. He must first 
of all believe, himself, what he has to say, and he must have a 
firm faith in his ability to impress that belief on his audience. 



16 NOTES ON PUBLIC SPEAKING 

His first step should be to stand squarely erect, both feet under 
him, his hands at his sides ready for instant use. Then he should 
never step away from his audience. He has something to say 
which he wants to impress on his hearers, and no man ever 
brought an audience to his way of thinking, by running away 
from them. He must keep pounding away at his auditors and to 
do that he must keep coming nearer to them. His changes of 
position, then, must always be forward, either to the front or side, 
but always forward, toward his audience. 

Next, he should look his auditors straight in the eye. He 
who can do this, has done much toward gaining their confidence, 
and when one has that, when he has made his hearers feel that 
he is in earnest, his av/kwardness, his mistakes even, seem trivial 
things. Do not look at the floor or the ceiling; look at your audi- 
ence. The eye should not remain fixed on any one individual for 
any length of time, nor should it wander aimlessly. Speak now 
to one person, now to another, and, in general, to those farthest 
away from you, for by so doing the "carrying power" of the voice 
is best brought out. Again, in describing objects or events which 
are supposed to be going on about us, we naturally glance at the 
object and back to the audience as if the things described were 
actually present. But for the most part, we talk to and look at 
our audience, because it is the audience whom we wish to im- 
press with what we are saying. 

Directions for Position. 

I. As you come upon the stage, take a position about the mid- 
dle of the stage and well toward the back of the space allotted to 
you. Then you will have plenty of room to move about as you 
change position or as the circumstances of the speech require. 
You will not feel "hemmed-in" or hampered and your mind will 
thus be relieved on that score. Walk slowly and quietly. Appear 
calm whether you feel so or not. 

II. Bring the heels nearly together (without clicking them), 



DECLAMATION 17 

and stand perfectly erect as a soldier would, v/ith hands at the 
sides and the weight on the ball of the foot. Keep your eyes to 
the front, on your audience, that is, not out of the window or on 
the floor or ceiling. Stand easily and without stiffness, but stand 
erect. Pause for an instant before bowing, and look your audi- 
ence over. Don't be afraid of the effect of that pause on your 
hearers. It will serve merely to hold their attention. 

III. Nov/ comes the bow. Keep the arms free at the sides, 
knees rigid \ and bend forward from the waist. Let the whole body 
above the waist go forward, almost drop forward as if itv/ere with- 
out joints, but try to avoid stiffness. Bow slowly and come slowly 
back to the original position. 

IV. Having finished me bow, you are ready, after a moment- 
ary pause, to begin speaking. Shift your position slightly. Stand 
easily, comfortably and naturally, but without slouching. Keep the 
feet under you and not sprawled about. Let the hands hang at the 
sides, easily and naturally without thought of their position. A 
position much used and to be commended is with the weight rest- 
ing on one foot, the other slightly in advance and the two making 
an angle of about ninety degrees. 

The Presentation of the Declamation- B. — Enunciation- 

The first thing to take note of in the actual delivery of the 
declamation, is the breathing. Your aim in your posture and in 
every part of your speech should be toward naturalness. As you 
stand naturally, so you should breathe naturally, deep, full breaths 
inhaled and exhaled as in ordinary conversation. This natural 
breathing will have a calming effect on the whole body, mind and 
muscle, and will give you less tendency to be disturbed, Don't 
try to force your breath when speaking loudly. 

Secondly, don't shout, but use a full deep tone, and as round 
as possible. Power, intensity of feeling, and emotion are not 
shown by noise, but by force, and force is not mere loudness. Let 
the power be behind the word, — outward, that is, and not under 



18 NOTES ON PUBLIC SPEAKING 

it, or upv/ard. In other words, give your words "carrying power," 
rather than ascending power. Let your words out of your mouth, 
rather than shut them up in your threat. Above all, feel intensely 
if you would have your words express intensity of feeling. 

Thirdly, speak slowly. Nothing is of more help to the young 
speaker, than the ability to speak slowly. He may lack force, 
his enunciation may be indistinct, but if he speaks slowly, 
these faults will be greatly lessened. His audience will be able 
to catch his words more readily and mere clearly, and he himself 
will not only feel that his audience are following him, but he will 
be much less likely to " Lose his head, " as we say, than if he 
were hurrying through the speech. 

Finally, speak distinctly, articulating each word carefully. Do 
not slur over syllables, especially ever final syllables. Give each 
vowel and diphthong its full sound-value. Here is seen the 
advantage of slowness in speaking. Do not run your words 
together. 

The Presentation of the Declamation. C. — Gesture. 

We have seen that one way of arresting and directing the 
attention of the audience to the principal points or words of the 
speech and of emphasizing those points was by stressing them. 
Another means is the use of gesture, or, as we have it defined, by 
" expressive movement, especially of the arms and head. " It 
should be reserved for emphatic passages, or for those in which 
the speaker's meaning cannot be fully expressed by the voice 
alone. Too many gestures, for the sake of gesture, are absurd. 
To be effective, therefore, they must be necessary, natural, and 
spontaneous. 

Gestures are of different kinds according to their purpose, 
and are made either with the he?d or with the hand, more 
frequently with the latter. Gestures of the head are almost en- 
tirely of indication, as when we wish to point cut something in an off 
hand manner, we do so by a slight turn of the head or an inclina- 



DECLAMATION 19 

tion toward the object. Gestures of the hands are of indication, 
of personal relation, and of enforcement or emphasis. The first 
and the last of these are most commonly used in oratorical 
speaking. 

The most common gesture of indication is made by raising the 
arm slowly and pointing with the forefinger, the remaining fingers 
being free, natural and relaxed. We use this gesture for point- 
ing out definite and minute objects. If, en the other hand, we 
wish to direct attention to vast objects, or in a general direction, 
we do so by raising the forearm till the wrist is on a level with 
the elbow, about opposite the middle of the chest, and then with 
the hand open, in an easy natural position, the palm up, pointing in 
the desired direction. The chief point to remember in these 
gestures, is that the hand and arm must be relaxed, must be in 
an easy, natural position, without muscular tension or stiffness. 
Do not think about the making of the gesture, simply let the ges- 
ture make itself. In other words, do not try to guide your hand, 
but let it take the natural position, as it will, without more mus- 
cular action than is absolutely necessary. 

The gestures of personal relation are a bit less common in 
oratorical speaking, but one or two of them are frequently used, 
and they are here given entire. The gesture of silence, or to 
command silence is made by raising the arm straight over the 
shoulder but inclined a bit forward, the palm open toward the 
audience. The gesture of appeal is made by extending the hand 
and forearm or the hands and forearms forward, as if to receive 
something from those addressed. Pretest or antagonism is ex- 
pressed by raising the hand and arm with the hand at right angles, 
palm toward the hearers as if to push them away from the speaker. 
The gesture of greeting is simply the extending of the hand as if 
to shake hands. 

The gestures of enforcement or emphasis are even more 
necessary than those cf indication. They will usually suggest 
themselves to the speaker from the circumstances of the case. 



20 NOTES ON PUBLIC SPEAKING 

Thus they are the most natural gestures, for most people com- 
monly use their hands in talking, " talk with their hands, " as we 
say, to a great extent, and for just this purpose, viz., emphasis. 
The clinched fist, the gesture of defiance is a typical example. 
Another is the index-finger gesture in which the hand is raised to 
a level with the face and slightly in front of it, the index-finger 
pointing upward, as when we say, " Mark ycu this! " Another 
common gesture is made by holding the left hand, palm up, on a 
level with the waist, and, raising the right hand a bit above the 
head and to the front of it, bringing it down sharply into the open 
palm of the left hand, letting the right hand strike on its lower or 
"little finger" edge. Such a gesture is used in counting or in 
emphasizing a series of points. A variation of this same gesture 
is to strike the open palm with the index finger only, the rest of 
the fingers being free and relaxed. The same result may be had 
by counting off the points on the extended fingers of the left hand, 
which is raised and held in front of the speaker, the counting 
being done with the index-finger. The gesture of invocation, as, 
" I call Heaven to witness i ", is made by extending the arm 
straight upward over the shoulder, the index-finger pointing up, 
the others relaxed, The eyes, however, should not be raised too 
high. The declarative gesture is made by extending the hand, 
with palm upward toward the audience, obliquely to the side, as 
in, " You can see for yourselves. " The same gesture made with 
both hands and with the hands lowered and pointing downward, 
palms turned toward the audience, would be used to indicate the 
speaker, as, " Here I stand for impeachment or trial." Such a 
gesture might almost express resignation. 

It will be noticed that naturalness in the gesture has been 
very strongly emphasized. Gestures are successful only as they 
are natural and spontaneous. They are successful only as the 
hand, though really in a very carefully studied position, seems to 
have taken that position naturally and without effort. Such a result 
can only be obtained by letting the hand have its pv/n way, by let* 



DECLAMATION 21 

ting it fall into the natural position. Now what is this natural 
position? If you will hold firmly the wrist of one hand with the 
other hand and then shake the held hand violently for a short 
time, finally dropping it to the side, it will hang there in the free, 
relaxed, natural position. In the same way, if you will hold the 
arm above the elbow and then shake the forearm, you will find 
that the forearm and hand, when released, will drop back to the 
side in the natural position. It is entirely without muscular ten- 
sion and it should be in that same condition when making a 
gesture. 

At the same time, it must not be " floppy. " Do not stick 
the hand out into space as if to say, " Well, there ought to be a 
gesture here, and here it is. " The result will not be a gesture ; 
your hand will simply be sticking out into space in an absolutely 
meaningless fashion. Your gesture must express something. If a 
man shakes his fist in your face, you knew what that gesture ex- 
presses without being told. So it should be with every gesture; 
its purp: se and meaning should be clear. There must be conviction 
and power behind it. Be sure your gestures are not cramped or 
timid. Courage will give fluency, and practice will give control 
of gesture. 

Conclusion. 

As a last word, let me say, " Don't be afraid. " Stage fright 
is common even to experienced speakers, and ycu probably will 
not escape it. But in this as in all things, practice will help, if 
not to conquer it, at least to make you feel it less. Before you 
come upon the stage, practice, and practice faithfully, the manner 
of your speech, the mechanical processes of emphasis, enuncia- 
tion and the like. Then, when you are speaking, think only of the 
matter of it. Think of the words, the thoughts of the declamation, 
and let the manner take care of itself. Put your heart as well 
as your head into it and try to feel what you say. Then if 
you have practiced faithfully, the result, while probably not Web- 
sterian, will at least bear some slight resemblance to eloquence. 



Part Two 

DEBATE 

Sophomore and Junior Years. A. — Debate. 



How Debate Differs from Argumentation. 

Argumentation, we are told, is "the art of producing in 
others a belief in the ideas which we wish them to accept. '* 
From this definition, it is evident that there may be both written 
and spoken argument, which latter we call debate. It must not 
be inferred, however, that the same conditions govern both kinds, for 
a good argumentative essayist, is not necessarily a good debater. 
Debate is a form of discussion, a direct oral contest between two 
opposing sides, on a definite question and at a definite time. 
Naturally, then, the principles applying to argumentation, which 
were studied during the freshman year, have to be adapted and 
new principles added to them for use in debate. Some practice 
in the application of these principles of argumentation is obtained in 
the writing of the forensic, or expanded argument, but the greater 
part of the work will be in the actual delivery of debates un 
assigned topics, and of " extempores. " 

What, now, must the debater know in addition to the prin- 
ciples of argumentation previously studied? He must know, first, 
how to express himself before an audience, with some degree of 
ease and force. He must know how to speak, that is. Secondly, 
he must be constantly on the alert, must have quick judgment, a 
clear head, self-confidence, and firm decision. Thirdly, he must 
be able to anticipate the moves, the attacks of the opposition, to 
meet them and to lead a counter-attack. Fourthly, he must be 



24 NOTES ON PUBLIC SPEAKING 

able to analyze his points, to see which are stronger and more 
effective, to know how he shall mass them and arrange them so 
that they will have the most serious effect on the enemy. More- 
over, the method of preparation for a debate differs from that of a 
written disputation. The question of delivery, is, of course, 
confined entirely to debate. Each of these different require- 
ments we shall now take up in detail, and for convenience in the 
actual work in debating, we shall take them up in the order which 
we should follow if we v/ere to prepare and deliver an actual 
debate. 

The Preparation of a Debate. 

First of all, in preparing a debate, we must note the question 
or proposition assigned to us and on the one side of which we are 
to speak. The first step, naturally, is to see exactly what the 
question means, and to this end we examine each word carefully, 
get all possible meanings for it and determine exactly which one is 
wanted in this particular case. Encyclopedias of various sorts will 
be found useful for this purpose, though it must not be taken for 
granted that any enclycopedic or dictionary definition will do, for 
both these sources deal with general definitions, while the student 
needs the definition suited to his particular question. To get that 
meaning he must go to other sources. That is, if he is dealing 
with a question of international law or relations, he must go to the 
books on international law ; if with a question of economics, to 
books on political economy, and so on. These sources must be 
noted carefully and minutely for later use. Then the history of 
the question in all its phases must be investigated and noted, but 
especially those phases which bear directly on the question at 
hand. 

Now the student is ready to find the issues of the question, i. e. 
the points which must be proved in order to prove the question. 
The methods of doing this have been fully discussed in the work 
in argumentation, and we will not enter into them here. Having 



DEBATE 25 

determined the issues, we are ready for the demonstration of them 
and the first step in this process is the preliminary reading, in 
which too great care cannot be exercised. Authorities vary in 
importance and in effectiveness, and care must be taken not to 
waste time in reading those of little value. Especially in the case 
of students whose time for this work is limited, is this caution to 
be observed. 

In the first place, have a note book and use it. Do not trust too 
much to your memory. Put down not only ideas which obviously 
are or may be of use, but also the place where you find the ideas, 
for such notes will be valuable for reference. It frequently 
happens, too, that ideas which at first reading seem of no service, 
may prove later on to be of the greatest value. Secondly, begin 
your reading with general books and articles or with books and 
articles which will give you an understanding of the general con- 
ditions of the question. In so doing you will secure a standard by 
which you can test everything else you read. Suppose, for 
example, that you are to discuss a railway question ; you would 
find it helpful to gain a general knowledge of the question by the 
reading of such books as Larabee's " The Railway Question " and 
President Hadley's excellent treatise on the subject, or any of some 
dozens of excellent treatments of the question. Thirdly, take up 
magazine articles or pamphlets dealing with your particular ques- 
tion. There will be no lack of these and such articles have the 
advantage of giving in condensed and handy form, the gist of the 
mass of data bearing on the subject. Much of a general nature 
is here sifted out for the reader, and he is left with hard facts 
which bear directly on his subject. 3y this time you will have 
determined what lines of proof you are to follow and can see what 
parts of the articles are necessary to you. Finally, read the 
newspapers, the Congressional Record (in National questions), 
and the like, for corroboration and for the details of the evidence. 
*For help on the whole subject of method in reading, the student cannot 
do better than to read pages 50-52 in Laycock and Scales' "Argumenta- 
tion and Debate. " 



26 NOTES ON PUBLIC SPEAKING 

Another very important point to notice in reading, is to read 
both sides of the question. The importance of this reading is ines- 
timable ; unless a debater does this he cannot see the question 
as a whole, and, consequently, is not in a position to understand 
fully his own side of the argument, not to speak of his opponent's. 
Unless he has some idea as to what line of argument his oppon- 
ent will follow, he cannot determine what line of argument he 
must himself follow in order to prove the question. In other 
words, the issues of the question are the points which must be 
proved in order to prove the question. They are, moreover, the 
points on which there is a direct clash of opinion, and unless the 
debater kncv/s clearly what his opponent asserts, he is unable to 
determine where those assertions conflict with his own. More- 
over, if he does not know what his opponent will try to prove and 
unless he is prepared beforehand to meet that proof, he will find 
himself at the opponent's mercy when the latter advances some 
unexpected point. The common idea that refutation can be made 
off-hand, without previous preparation, is ridiculous. Successful 
refutation is the result of just as careful preparation as is given to 
the actual argument. 

The Arrangement of a Debate. 

Now as you have been reading, you have jotted down in your 
note-book a miscellaneous collection of quotations and refer- 
ences, all bearing on the question, but of varying importance. 
These must now be sorted and sifted. You know what sre the 
issues of the question ; with these as a starter, you now proceed 
to arrange the material, gathering under each issue the material 
which bears directly on it. Many of the quotations will be found 
to have very little or no bearing on any of the issues, and these 
must be cast out entirely or set aside for further considera- 
tion later on. What is left, you next arrange under the proper 
issues. It will be found that the material thus grouped differs in 
value, that certain facts in themselves, constitute strong proof, 



DEBATE 27 

v/hile others, of no value in themselves, secondary facts, that is, 
are of value as proof of the primary facts. These primary facts 
must be distinguished from the secondary, must be made to stand 
out as proof of the main issues, while the secondary facts, and 
the merely corroborative evidence, such as newspaper references, 
must be arranged so as to show their dependence on the larger 
proof or facts. Or as we are told, " Each idea must follow logi- 
cally from the one preceding, in such a way that a single chain 
of reasoning runs all through the proof." The main arguments, 
that is, must be reasons for the truth or falsity of the proposition 
under discussion, and each sub-head must be a reason for the truth 
of the larger heading which preceeds it. 

But to have a logical order of proof is not enough. To 
be effective, the debate must be arranged in an effective or 
emphatic order. In other words, some points in the proof are 
important and others are trivial; emphasis distinguishes between 
them. Moreover, there are always some points which are strong 
and which can be attacked or overthrown only with difficulty, 
while there are others which are weaker and more easily dis- 
proved. An emphatic arrangement will give prominence to these 
strong points and at the same time cover up the weaker ones. 
P. it the important points, the strong points t in the naturally emphatic 
parts of the speech, that is, the beginning and the end. The weaker 
points will then be left for the middle of the speech, and buttressed 
as they are by stronger points, they will gain in strength, and 
seem stronger than they really are in themselves. 

Now the questions come, "What is to be done with the 
refutation? Where shall it be put?" While all authorities agree 
as to the importance of refutation in a debate, they differ some- 
what as to its position. Some would mass it in one place in a 
debate, while others say it should be scattered through the proof, 
under each argument being given whatever refutation is deemed 
best. The whole matter seems to be one of individual judgment. 
It is frequently a good rule to give refutation wherever your 



28 NOTES ON PUBLIC SPEAKING 

opponent seems likely to object to an argument you have just 
advanced, or wherever an argument of his, to which you take 
exception, arises. The idea here is that your argument is net 
complete, and that you are not entitled to go on with the next 
argument, until you have overthrown your opponent's objection to 
the first argument. This rule would apply to arguments of lesser 
importance rather than to those of sufficient importance to 
demand a separate and distinct refutation. The question whether 
an argument is or is not of such importance is one which must be 
decided by the debater in each case. 

The Brief of a Debate. 

The work of arrangement, just completed, has now to be 
embodied in what we call a brief. Please note at the outset that 
this brief is not merely a skeleton outline of headings and topics. 
It is a series of logically arranged, continuous, connected statements, 
containing all the materials of the proof. It should be such a piece 
of composition, that, given it, a reader would be able to get the 
entire argument, bare of its rhetorical form, and, of course, its 
persuasion, or appeal to the emotion, without help from the writer. 
To quote from Laycock & Scales' : " It contains practically all 
that is necessary for a successful appeal to the intellect, # * * * * 
is a composition in itself, and, v/hen completed, embodies the 
greater part of the work of preparation." 

It is not intended here to tell how a brief should be drawn, 
for it is excellently told on pages 142-180 in Lacock & Scales' 
" Argumentation and Debate" which has been previously studied. 
But simply "to stir up your minds by way of remembrance," 
some of the points noted there are here repeated. First, every 
brief should be divided into three parts, (a), The Introduction, 
which explains the question, giving all historical facts necessary 
for its clear understanding, the reasons why the question is of 
interest, a clear and particular definition of e/ery word in the 
question about which there could be any doubt, and if such exists, 



DEBATE 29 

the agreement between the two sides as to these definitions and 
the general definition of the question ; (b), The Argument, which 
contains the proof and the refutation on the question at issue ; 
and (c), The Conclusion, which is a summary of the points proved 
and disproved. 

Note (a), that the Introduction may contain a simple state- 
ment of the points the debater is to prove in his argument, in 
addition to the points noted above, but that it must contain abso- 
lutely no argument; it must be absolutely impartial, and so worded 
as to be acceptable to both sides. On the Argument (b), note 
that every main argument or heading should be in the form of a 
single, complete, statement, and should read as a reason for the 
truth or falsity of the main proposition ; that every sub-head 
should read as a reason for the truth of the larger heading next 
preceding, and that each should be in the form of a statement. 
In phrasing refutation, note that the argument to be answered 
must first be fully stated. It is not enough to put down the sim- 
ple refutation without stating the argument objected to. Finally, 
it is to be remembered that nothing must be put in the Conclu- 
sion which has not been clearly proved or disproved in the argu- 
ment. 

A good example of the completed brief, is to be found on 
pages 169-180 in Laycock and Scales' book, already referred to. 
This addition should be noted, i.e., that an argument is given an 
added strength, if with it is given the source from which it is 
drawn. In other words, always give the references, complete as to 
author, title, page, date and so on, from which your argument is 
quoted. Too much stress cannot be laid upon this point. Fur- 
ther matters of detail as to the drawing of briefs will be found in 
the Appendix. 

The Preparation of the Debate for Delivery. 

Now you are ready to prepare your argument for delivery, 
:t . rnce ?ome questions arise as to how this shall be done 



30 NOTES ON PUBLIC SPEAKING 

" Is it best to write out the whole debate, and then speak from 
the manuscript, or should the debate be delivered without the use 
of notes, without previous written preparation? Or should the 
debate be memorized and then delivered ?" None of the three 
suggested methods is without very great disadvantages, and none 
is to be followed entirely. 

In the first place, the debate which is written out and then 
spoken from the manuscript lacks spontaneity ; it lacks flexibility 
and adaptablity to the conditions of the debate ; it lacks aggres- 
siveness. The debater is tied down to his notes, and he dare not 
depart from them one iota, lest he fall. Secondly, to deliver the 
debate without previous written preparation is dangerous, especially 
for the young speaker. It is likely to result in an argument dis- 
jointed, incoherent, illogical and generally inconclusive. Finally, 
to deliver the debate from memory, does away with all personal 
relation between the audience and the speaker. Here again, as 
in the case of the debate spoken from manuscript, the debater is 
bound hand and foot, and lacks in adaptability and in flexibility. 

Of course, the goal to be striven for is extemporaneous speak- 
ing. In this kind of speaking, there is a deeper feeling, a harder 
striving to make an impression on the audience. It is more 
natural and allows free play to all the personal qualities in the man. 
Natuarally, then, it makes a deeper impression on the hearer. 
But, as has been well said, " All extemporaneous speaking is the 
result of a careful preparation." Even Webster says, "The man 
is never inspired by the occasion : I never was. " So we see that 
a preparation of some kind there must be. What shall it be? 

The three methods noted above, are, as individual methods 
out of the question, and yet there is in each of them, something 
to commend. We cannot do away with the written preparation, 
and we wish to come as near as possible to extempore speaking 
in our debate, — we shall, therefore, combine the two methods. 
The writing of the brief and the argument has many advantages. 
First of all, in writing one thinks more closely and mere concisely 



DEBATE 31 

than in speaking. His thinking is thus more likely to be logical, 
while at the same time he will have opportunity to consider what 
is the logical order, and more leisure to secure it. Moreover, 
when his ideas are on paper, they are within his grasp ; he can 
express them and still retain them with a chance of reviewing 
them at his leisure, and thus of considering their defects and 
their weaknesses, and of noting their virtues, whereas when once 
he has expressed his ideas in spoken words, they are gone from 
him with all their faults unmodified. 

All this, however, is without any intention of memorizing the 
debate or of speaking it from the manuscript. Whatever time is 
spent in writing the brief and the debate in this way, is put to the 
perfecting of the debate, to the making of it a more perfect 
weapon. At the same time the debater himself is getting more 
familiar with it. He is getting to understand it better, to feel it 
as his own, to know " its ins and outs, " its strength and its weak- 
ness. By the time one has " read up " for a debate, has sifted 
and sorted his arguments, has written a good brief, logical and 
clear, and a well-worded and forceful argument therefrom, and then 
has thoroughly gone over the brief and the argument, carefully 
considering, correcting and revising their defects, that debate ought 
to be a part of him. It ought to be his without memorizing or 
without a manuscript to prompt him. He ought to be able, and 
if he has done his work with care and faithfulness, he will be able 
to stand on his feet and deliver his debate without notes, and 
without further memorizing than an outline of the main points of 
the debate in their proper order. 

The Presentation or Delivery cf the Debate. 

In the actual delivery of the debate, the first thing to remem- 
ber is that the aim is largely to convince. Persuasion must not 
be neglected, of course, but primarily the aim of the debater is to 
convince the auditors, secondarily, to persuade them to act on 
their convictions, Study the audience and learn how a hold on 



32 NOTES ON PUBLIC SPEAKING 

them can best be obtained. Observe whether it will be necessary 
to encounter mere indifference or actual hostility, and act 
accordingly. 

Two qualities in your speech will aid you in either case, — 
sincerity or enthusiasm, and modesty. No man was ever per- 
suaded by a speaker who tried to decieve him or to play on his 
emotions for personal ends. A suspicious audience is hard to 
deal with, and it will be suspicious if it feels that a speaker is in- 
sincere. Be in earnest, feel your arguments and deliver them as 
if you felt them. Enthusiasm begets enthusiasm, and an earnest 
conviction on the part of an audience, is the offspring of a belief 
in him who would persuade it. By modesty is net meant sub- 
servience, not an apology for abilities, not a false modesty. It is 
simply that a speaker shall make himself secondary to his subject. 
His personality need not be repressed, -it may be there as strong 
as ever, leading but not driving. While not inferior to his audi- 
tors, the speaker must not be superior. He must not condescend 
to his audience, nor must he slur at his opponent or at that op- 
ponent's defects. 

More in detail, let us notice for a moment the various parts 
of the debate. The Introduction, first, should show what the 
question means, what are the issues, and how the proof leads up 
to them. In tone it should be clear, smooth and conciliatory. 
Do not oppose the audience, but try to have them well-disposed 
toward you, receptive, and fair-minded. Equally, do not oppose 
your opponent if you can avoid it. Here then is a field for all 
your persuasive skill. Of the definitions, do not think them dry 
and unimportant, for much depends on their skillful handling. 
Present them not as mere statements, but as vital issues. Put 
life into them. Show why the terms of the question mean what 
you say they mean, why it is important that this definition be 
grasped, how, perhaps, the whole question hinges on these defi- 
nitions. So with the issues, — show why they are and must be as 
you say they are, and make clear, too, how your proof leads di- 
rectly up to them. 



DEBATE 33 

On the Argument comes the question of how closely the fi- 
nal speech shall follow the brief. Do not for the sake of rhetor- 
ical qualities, destroy the advantages of a good arrangement. Do 
not expose the bare bones of the outline too rudely, yet at the 
same time do not forget that the bones have a logical order of 
arrangement. Try to follow the general arrangement of the brief 
in the debate, but clothe that outline in words such that "its ribs 
will not show through." Without forgetting that you must first con- 
vince an audience and that a good clear order will greatly help in 
this; without forgetting that good hard facts and not rhetorical 
figures bring conviction, try to make your argument both attract- 
ive and persuasive. Strive for variety. Do not simply repeat an 
argument in the same stereotyped phrases as every other. Vary 
the form of the different arguments, presenting one in one way 
and another in another, introducing one in one fashion and an- 
other in a different fashion, and so on. 

Now the object in debate is to make your auditors believe 
what you say and not what your opponent says. There are, of 
course, various methods of doing this. One may give plain, 
straight proof and refutation, and by actual reasoning, overwhelm 
his opponent and convince his auditors that his is the correct 
view of the case, at the same time causing them to consider the 
case of the opposition as entirely wrong. During this process, 
however, he must remember that he dealing with the opponent's 
argument and not with the man himself. In other words, he 
must avoid personalities in any form. One may critise and pick 
to pieces the argument of an opponent as much as he will, but 
the author of the argument he must let entirely alone. There 
are, however, certain strategems which may be employed most 
effectively to overthrow an opponent, One of the commonest of 
these, and one which is especially useful and successful where 
one's opponent is skillful in evading issues, is the asking of quest- 
ions. This does not mean rhetorical questions, but actual, care- 
fully-worded questions which call for a definite ansv/er. Their 



34 NOTES ON PUBLIC SPEAKING 

purpose is either to compel an opponent to take a definite stand 
on some issue, to tempt him to v/aste time on trivial matters, or 
to force him into a dilemma where he will be caught whatever he 
may answer. 

Of course the success of these questions depends to a very 
great extent on the cleverness with which they are worded. In 
the first case, the question must be so worded that the opponent 
must either answer it, and in so doing take a definite stand on 
the issue in question, or prejudice himself with the audience by 
not answering. In the second case, such a wording is necessary 
as will challenge the opponent or taunt him into making a reply 
and thus wasting his time on a matter deserving of little attention. 
At the same time he must not be made suspicious of the real in- 
tent of the question, or he will merely call to the attention of the 
audience what the intent really is and thus prejudice them against 
the questioner. In the case of the dilemma, one must be sure 
that there is no way in which the opposition can escape from it, 
that he has his opponent so " cornered," that is, that he cannot 
but fail into the trap set for him. 

As to refutation in the spoken argument. One must re- 
member that every man has his own opinion and is entitled to it. 
It may be contrary to your own; in a debate, it will be, if the man 
is your opponent. You expect hirn to have his own opinion, you 
are bound to respect it, but you are equally bound to answer it, in 
whole or in part. An argument cannot be successful till the ob- 
jections to it are answered. But do not think that you must an- 
swer every argument which your opponent will bring forward. 
Some of his minor arguments will be simply " feelers," skirmish- 
ers, thrown out to draw your fire from his main points, intended 
merely to tempt you to waste time. Other minor points are but 
parts of greater ones, the answering of which latter will overthrow 
also the former, To answer each of these minor, or secondary, 
points separately, would not only be a waste of time and energy, 
but in the ordinary debate, well-nigh an impossibility. It might 



DEBATE 35 

also call attention to them when they had gone unnoticed before, 
as presented by the opponents. Study your adversary's debate as 
he is delivering it. Pick out its vital points and aim at them. 
Let your aim be sure and shoot quickly, though after careful aim, 
for your time is limited and you have but one shot. With the 
methods of refutation, such as the exposing of the fallacy, the 
reductio ad absurdum, the dilemma, and so on, we shall not con- 
cern ourselves here further than to refer the student to pages 254- 
270, in Laycock and Scales' "Argumentation and Debate" where 
he will find the methods treated with excellence and complete- 
ness. 

Finally, just a word as to the Conclusion. Its purpose is to 
sum up, to make clear just what has been done and just what has 
been undone, and then to make the audience well-disposed to act 
on the one side of the question as against the other side. It 
requires the exercise of both conviction and persuasion. First, 
by means of summaries, one must clearly and convincingly drive 
home to the minds of the audience just what has been proved to 
them. Then, having convinced them of the truth of certain facts, 
the speaker must stir up their emotions and appeal to their better 
judgement to act on the facts which have just been shown them 
to be true. 

As to method of procedure, etiquette, and position in de- 
livery, that has all been definitely stated before. Remember that 
politiness requires that the speaker shall address both the chair- 
man and the audience before he begins to speak. Remember 
also, that a strong, earnest, convincing position has a convincing 
effect on the auditors as well as an helpful effect on the speaker 
himself. Stand on your feet as if you meant business ; speak as 
if you believed what you were saying and were determined that 
your audience should believe it also. Don't be afraid to use your 
hands. Gestures are as necessary in enforcing and making 
clear your own ideas as they are in the case of the ideas 
of others. Finally, be in earnest. It has been said that, "Eternal 



36 NOTES ON PUBLIC SPEAKING 

vigilance is the price of safety." It is equally true that eternal 
earnestness is the price of success. 



B.-THE EXTEMPORE 



What the Extempore is. — Its Advantages. 

The term "extempore" as used in the work of the course, 
is unquestionably a misnomer. What is really meant by the term 
is not an extemporaneous speech at all but a five-minute speech 
or discussion, or an assigned topic, delivered, after considerable 
outside reading, without notes, and as nearly extemporaneously as 
possible. For want of a better name, these little speeches are 
called extempores. Their advantages lie in the facts that they 
are less formal and so more natural than a debate, they are made 
after less careful preparation than a debate, and are as a result, 
it is hoped, more nearly extemporaneous speaking, and, finally, 
they call for a somewhat extended reading on topics of the times, 
a field in which the college student is lamentably deficient. 

The Presentation and Delivery of the Extempore. 

In the matter of delivery, the extempore is governed by 
practically the same rules as the declamation and the debate, but 
its preparation differs very widely from that of either of the 
others. The method of proceedure here is somewhat as follows. 
The student is assigned a topic of current interest and is referred 
to magazines and papers in which he will find that topic discussed. 
He then proceeds to read as much on the question as the time at 
his disposal will allow, forming his own ideas on the subject as he 
reads. Notes on his reading, he may take at his option, but he 
may not use them in his speaking. When he has finished his 
reading, he may even sketch out roughly what he intends to say 
in his speech, but this rough sketch must not be learned by heart 
nor used in his speech. Its purpose is simply to give form to 



THE EXTEMPORE 37 

his ideas. Then he is ready for the delivery. His prepara- 
tion may seem slight, but a perfectly finished product is not 
expected. What is wanted in the speech is not so much the 
ideas which the student has found in his reading, as his own ideas 
on the subject, acquired as a result both of his reading and of careful 
thought. The aim is not to produce an oration, but to give the 
student the ability to form opinions from his reading and to give 
those opinions to others without any such studied preparation as is 
required for an oration. 



Part Three 



APPENDIX 



-Extracts from the Regulations of the College 
affecting the Course in Public Speaking. 



ATTENDANCE. 

" One absence is allowed each semester from any subject 
except Rhetoricals. Each absence incurred during the first 
twenty-four hours of a session, or on the day preceding or 
succeeding a holiday or other suspension of college exercises, 
counts as two. All applications for excuse must be presented 
to the Division Office within twenty-four hours after the stu- 
dent's return to duty. Permits to make up work must be 
presented to the Instructor concerned at the ftrst exercise 
v/ith that Instructor next following the date of the permit, 
and the making up must be at times appointed by the In- 
structor and within two weeks from the return to duty. 
Failure to be present at any exercise at the ringing of the 
second bell, is treated as an absence. Attendance at hours 
assigned for tutoring is governed by the same rules as atten- 
dendance at classes, except that in such cases there are no 
" allowed " absences- " 

CLASS STANDING AND EXAMINATIONS. 
"All Irregular Students are required to take the regular 
work in Essays and Rhetoricals. Each unexcused absence, 
and each excused absence not made up, is treated as a 
failure. 
"A fee of one dollar, payable at the Business Office, is 



40 NOTES ON PUBLIC SPEAKING 

required for each examination for the removal of a condition. 
A similar fee is required for the making up of each exercise 
in Rhetoricals not performed at the usual time and not ex- 
cused by the Division Officer. A student delinquent in 
Rhetoricals and Essays is not permitted to enter any exama- 
tions unless especially excused by the Faculty ; and any 
examation deferred in consequence of such delinquency is 
subject to the rules governing examinations for the removal 
of conditions. 

"Any student who shall in his essays or orations (which in- 
cludes his briefs and expanded arguments), hand in as his 
own the work of any other person, shall be indefinitely, and 
unless the Faculty shall otherwise direct, permanently sus- 
pended from all classes. " 
III. JUNIOR ORATIONS AND COMMENCEMENT PARTS. 
" Only students in full standing in a regular course may com- 
pete for any of the established College prizes. 
" During the month of February, in each year, the Faculty 
appoints six orators and three alternates, from the members 
of the Junior class who shall have the highest previous stand- 
ing in essays and rhetoricals : Provided, That they shall be in 
good standing otherwise. 

" Each orator-elect shall, in the Spring session, report to 
the Professor of English and Rhetoric as follows : His sub- 
ject by the first Saturday; his oration, written out for crit- 
icism, by the sixth Saturday ; his oration, memorized for re- 
. hearsal, by the eighth Saturday. 

" Three suitable persons are selected by the Faculty as 

judges to award the honor of superiority in the composition 

and delivery of an English oration, in accordance with the 

following scale : Composition, 50 ; delivery, 50. 

" A student entering College in the Senior year cannot 

compete for honors. 

" From the fifty per cent, of the graduating cla§s having, 



APPENDIX 41 

at the beginning of the second semester, Senior year, the 
highest average grades in all subjects, the five students hav- 
ing the highest grades in essays and rhetcricals are assigned 
Commencement parts. 

" From these five the class shall, not later than the first 
Saturday of March, select their Valedictorian, who shall de- 
liver only the Valedictory. 

" The orators shall report to the Professor of English and 
Rhetoric as follows : Subject of oration, by the first Saturday 
of the Spring Session ; oration, written out for criticism, by 
the sixth Saturday ; oration memorized for rehearsal, by the 
eighth Saturday." 

B. — Requirements of the Course in Declamation : 
Directions for the Work. 

The work of the Freshman year consists in the learning, re. 
hearsal with criticism, and delivery in class of four different 
declamations, two of which are spoken in each semester. The 
work is divided into four periods, an interval of a week coming be- 
tween the first and second, and the third and fourth periods, while 
an interval of at least three weeks is allowed between the second 
and third periods. So far as is possible students should take care 
by consultation among themselves that not more than one man in 
each section chooses the same declamation. No absences are 
allowed in the work and every absence incurred counts both as a 
condition and an excess, and must be made up either on pre- 
sentation of an excuse from the Division Officer or a permit to 
remove conditions, obtainable at the Business Office. (See Ap- 
pendix A. I, II.) All absences must be made up with a regular sec- 
tion ; otherwise their removal will be considered as tutoring, and 
a fee of twenty-five (25) cents, due at the time of the appoint- 
ment, will be charged for each appointment. 

Early in each semester, notice is given to the students 



42 NOTES ON PUBLIC SPEAKING 

in their classes in Rhetoric, to provide themselves with 
copies of Prof. Espenshade's, "Forensic Declamations, " and 
of these present " Notes, " both of which are to be had 
at the Book Room. The hours at which the different sections 
will meet for Rhetoricals will be found on the printed schedule, 
but as it is impracticable to begin work at the very opening of the 
session, the apportionment of sections, etc.. has to come later on. 
However, the student may well be learning his declamation even 
through his appointments be not yet arranged, and he will do well 
to be studying the " Notes" for he will be held accountable for a 
good working knowledge of what is contained in the Introduction, 
Part I, and Appendix of this pamphlet. About a fortnight after 
the opening of the Semester, a list of the sections, containing the 
names of the students in each section, as well as the the time 
and place of meeting and the Instructor in charge will be posted 
on the Bulletin in the Main Hall. Certain declamations, it will 
be found, are prohibited, and these should be carefully noted and 
avoided in choosing a declamation for rehearsal. The student 
should be ready at the time of the first appointment to present his 
declamation carefully and thoroughly memorized, and with as 
much attention as is possible to the suggestions in the introduction 
and first part of this pamphlet. Should conflicts in the schedules 
be found, they should at once be reported to the Instructor in 
Oratory during his office hours, which will be posted with the 
schedule. 

C. — Requirements of the Course in Debate : Di- 
rections for the Work. 

The work of the Sophomore and Junior years is completed in 
three hours of class work during each semester throughout the 
two years. The classes are divided into sections of ten men 
each, and each section meets three times, generally on three 
successive weeks. The student is required to attend all the ex- 
ercises of his section, at one of which he delivers a debate, with 



APPENDIX 43 

a brief and an expanded argument thereon, at another, an extem- 
pore, while at the third, he is present simply as a listener. Two 
appearances on each debate are required of each debater. The 
first appearance, of five minutes, is devoted to advancing actual 
proof, while the second appearance, of three minutes, though it may 
be used for rebuttal or further positive proof at the speakers' op- 
tion, or as the case demands, is ordinarily used for refutation. The 
debate is to be delivered without notes, though notes on the refu- 
tation, or rebuttal, are quite permissable. At the time of his debate, 
each student is required to present a carefully written brief and 
an expanded argument of his debate. The argument is to be 
handed to the Instructor at the beginning of the hour, but the brief 
may be retained until the close, though it is not to be referred to 
while the debater is speaking. Both the brief and the argument 
must be written on regulation Department of English paper, or 
they will not be accepted. The debate should not be memorized. 
(See "The Preparation of the Debate for Delivery," Part II.) 
The brief and argument will be carefully criticised by the Instruc- 
tor, who will use the marks noted in Appendix E, and returned to 
the student. The student will carefully note the corrections on 
his work so as to avoid the same mistakes on his next written 
work, and, if asked to rewrite, will return the rewritten copy only , 
within one week of the return of the original copy to him. For 
the extempore, which is not to memorized and which is to be 
delivered entirely without notes, five minutes is allowed. No 
absences are allowed in the work, and each absence counts as an 
excess and must be made up either on presentation of an excuse 
from the Division Officer or a permit to remove conditions, ob- 
tainable at the Business Office. (See Appendix A, I and II.) 
All absences must be made up with a regular section ; otherwise 
their removal will be considered as tutoring, and a fee of twenty- 
five (25) cents, due at the time of the appointment, will be 
charged for each appointment. 

As early as possible in each Semester, the Instructor will 



44 NOTES ON PUBLIC SPEAKING 

post a notice asking all those who are required to take the work 
to hand in to him at once, a list of their vacant hours during the 
Semester. From these lists, the sections will be made up and 
posted on the Bulletin in the Lobby of the Carnegie Library, to- 
gether with the time and place of meeting. The questions for 
debate, with the speakers, time and place of meeting ; the topics 
for extempores, with the speakers and time of meeting ; and the 
references for the extempores, will all be found en the Library 
Bulletin Board. References on the debates will be found at the 
Librarian's Desk. Do not be afraid to ask for them or for any 
help that you may properly need. Any conflicts which may be 
found should be at once reported to the Instructor during his 
office hours, which will be posted with the other notices relative to 
the work of the course. 

D. — Suggestions for the Writing of Briefs and Ex= 
panded Arguments. 

I. Study carefully the model brief, referred to above, before 
you begin to write ; note carefully, also, the corrections on your 
last brief and avoid the same mistakes on this second. Write 
legibly. Don't crowd together the letters of a word, your writing, 
that is, nor the parts of the brief, nor the arguments thereof. 
Write only on one side of the paper and do not write over, i. e., 
to the left of, fhe red margin-line. Follow out the suggestions 
referred to in Part II. as to the writing of the brief. Indent the 
paragraphs of the Argument ; number the pages of all your writ- 
ten work and arrange them in their proper order. 

II. Use only Department of English paper and write only 
with black ink. Fold the paper once lengthwise, and on the out- 
side sheet, at the place indicated, write the subject for debate, 
your name, the date of your debate, and above these, on the va- 
cant line below the words "Department of English," write in 
"Brief," or "Argument for the Affirmative" or " Negative," as 
the case may be. Instead of writing out the. eptjre question in 



APPENDIX 45 

the space for the subject, it is advisable to give simply the subject 
of the debate, as " The Railroad Question," "The Menace of 
Trade Unionism," etc., instead of "Resolved, that the railroads of 
the country should be under governmental control," and, " Re- 
solved, that trade unions are a menace to public welfare." 

E.* — Instructor's Marks for the Correcting of 

Briefs and Arguments. 
Ant. The antecedent needs attention. 
C. Make your meaning perfectly clear. 
cap. Capital letters misused or not used at all. 

C. S. Sentence incoherent. 

D. Consult the dictionary. 

d. w. Word wrongly divided at end of the line. 

F. Weak. Express v/ith more strength. 

G. Good usage is violated. 
gr. Bad grammar. 

/. 5. Incomplete sentence. 

T. Too many short, choppy sentences. Combine. 

K. Awkward, stiff, or clumsy. 

L. Long involved sentence. Break it up. 

Ms. Manuscript slovenly or illegible. Copy. 

N. S. Make a new sentence at this point. 

0. Some essential word or idea omitted. Supply. 
P. Improper punctuation. Punctuate correctly. 
R. Avoid the constant repetition. 

Sp. Word mispelled. Correct. 

V. Vague. Want of clear thinking is evident. 

w. w. Wrong word to express your meaning. 

1 , 2, 3, etc. Arrange words or phrases in order indicated 
by the figures. 

IT Make a paragraph here. 

No IT No paragraph needed. 

/. Divide brief into Introduction, Argument, and Conclusion. 



46 NOTES ON PUBLIC SPEAKING 

II. Put every heading and sub-heading in the form of a 
single, complete sentence. 

III. Indicate the relation between the headings and sub- 
headings by means of letters, numbers and other symbols. 

IV. The Introduction should contain absolutely no argu- 
ment, but only statements the truth of which is admitted by both 
sides. 

V. Make each heading read as a reason for the truth or 
falsity of the proposition you are to prove or disprove. 

VI. Make every sub-head or series of co-ordinate sub-heads 
read as a reason for the truth of the heading above it. 

VII. Always state in full the argument to be refuted. 

VIII. Always give exact references for your arguments, sc 
far as possible. 

IX. Number your pages and arrange them in their proper 

order. 

'^The majority of these marks are taken from the list of instructor's 
marks given in the Appendix of Prof. A. H. Espenshade's "Composition and 
Rhetoric. " 



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